Light, strong and rigid composite material
"Carbon fiber" redirects here. For fibers of carbon, see
Carbon fibers.
Tail of a radio-controlled helicopter, made of CFRP
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (American English), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers (Commonwealth English), carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics, carbon-fiber reinforced-thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP), also known as carbon fiber, carbon composite, or just carbon, are extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastics that contain carbon fibers. CFRPs can be expensive to produce, but are commonly used wherever high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness (rigidity) are required, such as aerospace, superstructures of ships, automotive, civil engineering, sports equipment, and an increasing number of consumer and technical applications.[1][2][3][4]
The binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester, or nylon, are sometimes used.[4] The properties of the final CFRP product can be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix (resin). The most common additive is silica, but other additives such as rubber and carbon nanotubes can be used.
Carbon fiber is sometimes referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP is less common, as it clashes with glass-(fiber)-reinforced polymer).
CFRP are composite materials. In this case the composite consists of two parts: a matrix and a reinforcement. In CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides its strength. The matrix is usually a thermosetting plastic, such as polyester resin, to bind the reinforcements together.[5] Because CFRPs consist of two distinct elements, the material properties depend on these two elements.
Reinforcement gives CFRPs their strength and rigidity, measured by stress and elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRPs have directional strength properties. The properties of a CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber and the proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer.[6] The two different equations governing the net elastic modulus of composite materials using the properties of the carbon fibers and the polymer matrix can also be applied to carbon fiber reinforced plastics.[7] The rule of mixtures for the equal strain case gives:
which is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented parallel to the applied load. 
is the total composite modulus, 
and 
are the volume fractions of the matrix and fiber respectively in the composite, and 
and 
are the elastic moduli of the matrix and fibers respectively.[7] The other extreme case of the elastic modulus of the composite with the fibers oriented transverse to the applied load can be found using the inverse rule of mixtures for the equal stress case:[7]
The above equations give an upper and lower bound on the Young's modulus for CFRP and there are many other factors that influence the true value.
The fracture toughness of carbon fiber reinforced plastics is governed by multiple mechanisms:
- Debonding between the carbon fiber and polymer matrix.
- Fiber pull-out.
- Delamination between the CFRP sheets.[8]
Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0.5% strain to failure. Although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics presents unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically.[8] As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material and finding alternative polymer matrix. One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength.[8] However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive.[8]
Despite their high initial strength-to-weight ratios, a design limitation of CFRPs are their lack of a definable fatigue limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out. While steel and many other structural metals and alloys do have estimable fatigue or endurance limits, the complex failure modes of composites mean that the fatigue failure properties of CFRPs are difficult to predict and design against; however emerging research has shed light on the effects of low velocity impacts on composites.[9] Low velocity impacts can make carbon fiber polymers susceptible to damage.[9][10][11] As a result, when using CFRPs for critical cyclic-loading applications, engineers may need to design in considerable strength safety margins to provide suitable component reliability over its service life.
Environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While CFRPs demonstrate excellent corrosion resistance, the effect of moisture at wide ranges of temperatures can lead to degradation of the mechanical properties of CFRPs, particularly at the matrix-fiber interface.[12] While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the moisture plasticizes the polymer matrix.[8] This leads to significant changes in properties that are dominantly influenced by the matrix in CFRPs such as compressive, interlaminar shear, and impact properties.[13] The epoxy matrix used for engine fan blades is designed to be impervious against jet fuel, lubrication, and rain water, and external paint on the composites parts is applied to minimize damage from ultraviolet light.[8][14]
Carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CFRP parts are attached to aluminum or mild steel but not to stainless steel or titanium.[15]
CFRPs are very hard to machine, and cause significant tool wear. The tool wear in CFRP machining is dependent on the fiber orientation and machining condition of the cutting process. To reduce tool wear various types of coated tools are used in machining CFRP and CFRP-metal stack.[1]
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
The primary element of CFRPs is a carbon filament; this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon, or petroleum pitch. For synthetic polymers such as PAN or rayon, the precursor is first spun into filament yarns, using chemical and mechanical processes to initially align the polymer chains in a way to enhance the final physical properties of the completed carbon fiber. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers. After drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms (carbonization), producing the final carbon fiber. The carbon fibers filament yarns may be further treated to improve handling qualities, then wound onto bobbins.[16] From these fibers, a unidirectional sheet is created. These sheets are layered onto each other in a quasi-isotropic layup, e.g. 0°, +60°, or −60° relative to each other.
From the elementary fiber, a bidirectional woven sheet can be created, i.e. a twill with a 2/2 weave. The process by which most CFRPs are made varies, depending on the piece being created, the finish (outside gloss) required, and how many of the piece will be produced. In addition, the choice of matrix can have a profound effect on the properties of the finished composite.[17]
Many CFRP parts are created with a single layer of carbon fabric that is backed with fiberglass.[18] A tool called a chopper gun is used to quickly create these composite parts. Once a thin shell is created out of carbon fiber, the chopper gun cuts rolls of fiberglass into short lengths and sprays resin at the same time, so that the fiberglass and resin are mixed on the spot.[19] The resin is either external mix, wherein the hardener and resin are sprayed separately, or internal mixed, which requires cleaning after every use. Manufacturing methods may include the following:
One method of producing CFRP parts is by layering sheets of carbon fiber cloth into a mold in the shape of the final product. The alignment and weave of the cloth fibers is chosen to optimize the strength and stiffness properties of the resulting material. The mold is then filled with epoxy and is heated or air-cured. The resulting part is very corrosion-resistant, stiff, and strong for its weight. Parts used in less critical areas are manufactured by draping cloth over a mold, with epoxy either pre-impregnated into the fibers (also known as pre-preg) or "painted" over it. High-performance parts using single molds are often vacuum-bagged and/or autoclave-cured, because even small air bubbles in the material will reduce strength. An alternative to the autoclave method is to use internal pressure via inflatable air bladders or EPS foam inside the non-cured laid-up carbon fiber.
For simple pieces of which relatively few copies are needed (one or two per day), a vacuum bag can be used. A fiberglass, carbon fiber, or aluminum mold is polished and waxed, and has a release agent applied before the fabric and resin are applied, and the vacuum is pulled and set aside to allow the piece to cure (harden). There are three ways to apply the resin to the fabric in a vacuum mold.
The first method is manual and called a wet layup, where the two-part resin is mixed and applied before being laid in the mold and placed in the bag. The other one is done by infusion, where the dry fabric and mold are placed inside the bag while the vacuum pulls the resin through a small tube into the bag, then through a tube with holes or something similar to evenly spread the resin throughout the fabric. Wire loom works perfectly for a tube that requires holes inside the bag. Both of these methods of applying resin require hand work to spread the resin evenly for a glossy finish with very small pin-holes.
A third method of constructing composite materials is known as a dry layup. Here, the carbon fiber material is already impregnated with resin (pre-preg) and is applied to the mold in a similar fashion to adhesive film. The assembly is then placed in a vacuum to cure. The dry layup method has the least amount of resin waste and can achieve lighter constructions than wet layup. Also, because larger amounts of resin are more difficult to bleed out with wet layup methods, pre-preg parts generally have fewer pinholes. Pinhole elimination with minimal resin amounts generally require the use of autoclave pressures to purge the residual gases out.
Compression molding
[edit]
A quicker method uses a compression mold, also commonly known as carbon fiber forging. This is a two (male and female), or multi-piece mold, usually made out of aluminum or steel and more recently 3D printed plastic. The mold components are pressed together with the fabric and resin loaded into the inner cavity that ultimately becomes the desired component. The benefit is the speed of the entire process. Some car manufacturers, such as BMW, claimed to be able to cycle a new part every 80 seconds. However, this technique has a very high initial cost since the molds require CNC machining of very high precision.
For difficult or convoluted shapes, a filament winder can be used to make CFRP parts by winding filaments around a mandrel or a core.
Carbon fiber-reinforced pre-pregs and dry carbon fiber textiles require precise cutting methods to maintain material integrity and reduce defects such as fiber pull-out, delamination and fraying of the cutting edge. CNC digital cutting systems equipped with drag and oscillating are often used to cut carbon fiber pre-pregs, and rotating knives are commonly used to process carbon fiber fabrics. Ultrasonic cutting is another method to cut CFRP pre-pregs and is particularly effective in reducing delamination by minimizing mechanical stress during the cutting process. Waterjet cutting can be the preferred method for thicker and multilayered polymer composites.[20]
Applications for CFRPs include the following:
Aerospace engineering
[edit]
An Airbus A350 with carbon fiber themed livery. Composite materials are used extensively throughout the A350.
The Airbus A350 XWB is 53% CFRP[21] including wing spars and fuselage components, overtaking the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, for the aircraft with the highest weight ratio for CFRP at 50%.[22] It was one of the first commercial aircraft to have wing spars made from composites. The Airbus A380 was one of the first commercial airliners to have a central wing-box made of CFRP and the first with a smoothly contoured wing cross-section instead of partitioning it span-wise into sections. This flowing, continuous cross section optimises aerodynamic efficiency.[citation needed] Moreover, the trailing edge, along with the rear bulkhead, empennage, and un-pressurised fuselage are made of CFRP.[23]
However, delays have pushed order delivery dates back because of manufacturing problems. Many aircraft that use CFRPs have experienced delays with delivery dates due to the relatively new processes used to make CFRP components, whereas metallic structures are better understood. A recurrent problem is the monitoring of structural ageing, for which new methods are required, due to the unusual multi-material and anisotropic[24][25][26] nature of CFRPs.[27]
In 1968 a Hyfil carbon-fiber fan assembly was in service on the Rolls-Royce Conways of the Vickers VC10s operated by BOAC.[28]
Specialist aircraft designers and manufacturers Scaled Composites have made extensive use of CFRPs throughout their design range, including the first private crewed spacecraft Spaceship One. CFRPs are widely used in micro air vehicles (MAVs) because of their high strength-to-weight ratio.
Airbus then moved to adopt CFRTP, because it can be reshaped and reprocessed after forming, can be manufactured faster, has higher impact resistance, is recyclable and remoldable, and has lower processing costs.[29]
Automotive engineering
[edit]
McLaren MP4 (MP4/1), first carbon fiber F1 car
CFRPs are extensively used in high-end automobile racing.[30] The high cost of carbon fiber is mitigated by the material's unsurpassed strength-to-weight ratio, and low weight is essential for high-performance automobile racing. Race-car manufacturers have also developed methods to give carbon fiber pieces strength in a certain direction, making it strong in a load-bearing direction, but weak in directions where little or no load would be placed on the member. Conversely, manufacturers developed omnidirectional carbon fiber weaves that apply strength in all directions. This type of carbon fiber assembly is most widely used in the "safety cell" monocoque chassis assembly of high-performance race-cars. The first carbon fiber monocoque chassis was introduced in Formula One by McLaren in the 1981 season. It was designed by John Barnard and was widely copied in the following seasons by other F1 teams due to the extra rigidity provided to the chassis of the cars.[31]
Many supercars over the past few decades have incorporated CFRPs extensively in their manufacture, using it for their monocoque chassis as well as other components.[32] As far back as 1971, the Citroën SM offered optional lightweight carbon fiber wheels.[33][34]
Use of the material has been more readily adopted by low-volume manufacturers who used it primarily for creating body-panels for some of their high-end cars due to its increased strength and decreased weight compared with the glass-reinforced polymer they used for the majority of their products.